Home > Archive > No. 1 (201) 2026 > 63–89
Geology & Geochemistry of Combustible Minerals No. 1 (201) 2026, 63–89
ISSN 0869-0774 (Print), ISSN 2786-8621 (Online)
https://doi.org/10.15407/ggcm2026.201.063
Anatoliy GALAMAYa, Daria SYDORb, Sofiia MAKSYMUKc, Oksana OLIIOVYCH-HLADKAd
Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Combustible Minerals of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Lviv, Ukraine
a e-mail: galamaytolik@ukr.net, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4864-6401
b https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5704-3748
c https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6301-9988
d https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7678-1725
Abstract
Comprehensive studies of Messinian salt-bearing deposits of the Tuz Gölü Basin (Turkey) and Pleistocene deposits of the Qaidam Basin (China) have established the physicochemical causes of changes in brine composition in salt-forming basins and reconstructed the crystallization conditions of halite, glauberite, and polyhalite. These results contribute to the theoretical framework of salt mineralogenesis in applied evaporite studies and serve as geochemical criteria for predicting salt deposits. Particular attention to the identification of evaporite genesis was given to the preliminary investigation of the origin of fluid inclusions in halite.
According to the results of brine studies of fluid inclusions in halite from the Tuz Gölü Basin, the sources of salts in the basin were both continental and marine waters. A decrease in potassium concentration in basin brines is related to their interaction with organic matter and clay of continental origin. Since the concentration of sedimentary brines and their potassium content remained low throughout salt accumulation, this indicates a lack of potential for the occurrence of potash-bearing units within the salt sequence. The removal of sulfate ions and part of sodium from the brines at certain stages of basin evolution was caused by the formation of glauberite during periods of halted halite deposition. Repeated significant increases in sulfate ion concentrations in basin brines, followed by abrupt decreases, indicate favourable conditions for the occurrence of glauberite-bearing units within the depositional sequence.
According to the study of salt-bearing deposits of the Qaidam Basin, the principal mechanism of polyhalite formation was the salting-out of gypsum, which was transformed into polyhalite during the sedimentary stage. The sources of calcium in the sulfate-type salt-forming basin were continental fresh waters as well as pore and intercrystalline brines of chemogenic–terrigenous sediments. It was determined that the temperature regime of bottom brines during sedimentogenesis played a key role in the transformation of gypsum into polyhalite. Relics of potassium–magnesium minerals in the studied samples and elevated magnesium contents in the brines of secondary fluid inclusions indicate that part of the polyhalite may have formed through the replacement of sylvite and carnallite in the deposits due to calcium input from solutions associated with nearby oil accumulations. The established physicochemical conditions of polyhalite formation in the basin expand the theoretical understanding of polyhalite mineralization in fundamental and applied studies and represent geochemical criteria for predicting its deposits.
Detailed investigation of chemical paleooceanography, the features of salt mineral formation with specific chemical compositions in basins, and the discrimination between marine and continental salt-forming basins makes a significant contribution to understanding the genetic nature of evaporite-related mineral resources and to improving their future exploration and prediction.
Keywords
fluid inclusions, halite, glauberite, polyhalite, sources of salts
Referenses
Akgün, F., Kayseri-Özer, M. S., Tekin, E., Varol, B., Şen, Ş., Herece, E., Gündoğan, İ., Sözeri, K., & Us, M. S. (2021). Late Eocene to Late Miocene palaeoecological and palaeoenvironmental dynamics of the Ereğli–Ulukışla Basin (Southern Central Anatolia). Geological Journal, 56(2), 673–703. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.4021
Andeskie, A. S., & Benison, K. C. (2020). Using sedimentology to address the marine or continental origin of the Permian Hutchinson Salt Member of Kansas. Sedimentology, 67(2), 882–896. https://doi.org/10.1111/sed.12665
Ayora, C., Garcia-Veigas, J., & Pueyo, J. J. (1994). The chemical and hydrological evolution of an ancient potash-forming evaporite basin as constrained by mineral sequence, fluid inclusion composition, and numerical simulation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 58(16), 3379–3394. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(94)90093-0
Benison, K. C., & Goldstein, R. H. (1999). Permian paleoclimate data from fluid inclusions in halite. Chemical Geology, 154(1–4), 113–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(98)00127-2
Charykova, M. V., Kurilenko, V. V., & Charykov, N. A. (1992). Temperatures of formation of certain salts in sulfate-type brines. Journal of Applied Chemistry of the USSR, 65(6), 1037–1040.
Demir, E., & Varol, E. (2022). Origin and palaeodepositional environment of evaporites in the Bala sub-basin, Central Anatolia, Türkiye. International Geology Review, 65(11), 1900–1922. https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2022.2114021
Doebelin, N., & Kleeberg, R. (2015). Profex: a graphical user interface for the Rietveld refinement program BGMN. Journal of Applied Crystallography, 48, 1573–1580. https://doi.org/10.1107/S1600576715014685
Dumon, M., & Van Ranst, E. (2016). PyXRD v0.6.7: a free and open-source program to quantify disordered phyllosilicates using multi-specimen X-ray diffraction profile fitting. Geoscientific Model Development, 9, 41–57. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-41-2016
Ercan, H. Ü., Karakaya, M. Ç., Bozdağ, A., Karakaya, N., & Delikan, A. (2019). Origin and evolution of halite based on stable isotopes (δ37Cl, δ81Br, δ11B and δ7Li) and trace elements in Tuz Gölü Basin, Turkey. Applied Geochemistry, 105, 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2019.04.008
Galamay, A. R., Karakaya, M. Ç., Bukowski, K., Karakaya, N., & Jaremchuk, Y. (2023). Geochemistry of brine and paleoclimate reconstruction during sedimentation of Messinian salt in the Tuz Gölü Basin (Türkiye): Insights from the study of fluid inclusions. Minerals, 13(2), 171. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020171
Galamay, A. R., Meng, F., & Bukowski, K. (2014). Sulphur isotopes in anhydrite from Badenian (Middle Miocene) salts of the Hrynivka area (Ukrainian Carpathian Foredeep). Geological Quarterly, 58(3), 439–448. https://doi.org/10.7306/gq.1159
Garcia-Veigas, J., Orti, F., Rosell, L., Ayora, C., Rouchy, J.-M., & Lugli, S. (1995). The Messinian salt of the Mediterranean: geochemical study of the salt from the Central Sicily Basin and comparison with the Lorca Basin (Spain). Bulletin de la Societé géologique de France, 166(6), 699–710.
Görür, N., & Derman, A. S. (1978). Stratigraphic and tectonic analysis of the Tuz Gölü-Haymana Basin (Turkish Petroleum Corporation Report 1514). TPAO. Ankara, Turkey.
Görür, N., Okay, F. Y., Seymen, I., & Şengör, A. M. C. (1984). Paleotectonic evolution of the Tuzgölü basin complex, Central Turkey: Sedimentary record of a Neo-Tethyan closure. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 17, 467–482. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1984.017.01.34
Gündoğan, I., & Helvaci, С. (1996). Geology, hydrochemistry, mineralogy and economic potential of the Bolluk lake (Cihanbeyli-Konya) and the adjacent area. Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, 5(2), 91–104.
Halamai, A. R. (2012a). Vplyv kontynentalnykh vod na sklad morskykh rozsoliv tsentralnoi chastyny badenskoho solerodnoho baseinu Ukrainskoho Peredkarpattia. Mineralohichnyi zbirnyk, 62(2), 228–235. [in Ukrainian]
Halamai, A. (2012b). Umovy utvorennia halitu v badenskomu Zakarpatskomu solerodnomu baseini (za doslidzhenniamy vkliuchen). Heolohiia i heokhimiia horiuchykh kopalyn, 3–4(160–161), 82–101. [in Ukrainian]
Halamai, A., Poberezhskyi, A., Hryniv, S., Vovniuk, S., Sydor, D., Yaremchuk, Ya., Maksymuk, S., Oliiovych-Hladka, O., & Bilyk, L. (2021). Heokhimichni osoblyvosti evaporytovykh formatsii Yevrazii u konteksti evoliutsii khimichnoho skladu morskoi vody protiahom fanerozoiu. Heolohiia i heokhimiia horiuchykh kopalyn, 1–2(183–184), 110–129. https://doi.org/10.15407/ggcm2021.01-02.110 [in Ukrainian]
Halamai, A. R., Sydor, D. V., & Oliiovych-Hladka, O. V. (2021). Dosvid praktychnoho vykorystannia ultramikrokhimichnoho metodu doslidzhennia khimichnoho skladu rozsoliv fliuidnykh vkliuchen u haliti. In Heolohichna nauka v nezalezhnii Ukraini: zbirnyk tez naukovoi konferentsii, prysviachenoi 30-tii richnytsi Nezalezhnosti Ukrainy (8–9 veresnia 2021 r.) (pp. 26–28). Kyiv. [in Ukrainian]
Halamai, A., Zinchuk, I., & Sydor, D. (2023). Termometrychni doslidzhennia fliuidnykh vkliuchen u badenskomu haliti karpatskoho rehionu v konteksti vstanovlennia hlybyny solerodnoho baseinu. Heolohiia i heokhimiia horiuchykh kopalyn, 1–2(189–190), 54–65. https://doi.org/10.15407/ggcm2023.189-190.054 [in Ukrainian]
Hua, Z., Liu, C., Zhang, Y., & Dai, T. (2015). Characteristics and hydrogen–oxygen isotopic compositions of halite fluid inclusions in the Thakhek area, Laos, and the way of salt material supplie. Acta Geologica Sinica, 11, 2134–2140.
Karakaya, M. C., Bozdağ, A., Ercan, H. Ü., & Karakaya, N. (2020). The origin of Miocene evaporites in the Tuz Gölü basin (Central Anatolia, Turkey): Implications from strontium, sulfur and oxygen isotopic compositions of the Ca-Sulfate minerals. Applied Geochemistry, 120, 104682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2020.104682
Karakaya, M. Ç., Bozdağ, A., Ercan, H. Ü., Karakaya, N., & Delikan, A. (2019). Origin of Miocene halite from Tuz Gölü basin in Central Anatolia, Turkey: Evidences from the pure halite and fluid inclusion geochemistry. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.03.004
Karakaya, M. Ç., Bozdağ, A., & Karakaya, N. (2021). Elemental and C, O and Mg isotope geochemistry of middle-late Miocene carbonates from the Tuz Gölü Basin (Central Anatolia, Turkey): Evidence for Mediterranean incursions. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 221, 104946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2021.104946
Kashkarov, O. D. (1956). Sadka solei v solyanykh ozerakh. Trudy VNIIG, 32, 3–33. [in Russian]
Kovalevich, V. M. (1990). Galogenez i khimicheskaia evoliutciia okeana v fanerozoe. Kiev: Naukova dumka. [in Russian]
Kovalevych, V. M., Jarmołowicz-Szulc, K., Peryt, T. M., & Poberegski, A. V. (1997). Messinian chevron halite from the Red Sea (DSDP Sites 225 and 227): fluid inclusion study. N. Jb. Mineral. Mh., 10, 433–450.
Li, C., Li, В., & Li, Z. (1990). Census report of the potash deposit in Kunteyi, Lenghu Town, Qinghai Province. Delingha. The Qinghai Qiandam comprehensive geological survey unit. [in Chinese]
Li, J., Li, W., Miao, W., Tang, Q., Li, Y., Yuan, X., Hai, Q., Du, Y., & Zhang, X. (2022). Reconstruction of polyhalite ore-formed temperature from Late Middle Pleistocene brine temperature research in Kunteyi Playa, Western China. Geofluids, 255886. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6255886
Li, M., Fang, X., Galy, A., Wang, H., Song, X., & Wang, X. (2020). Hydrated sulfate minerals (bloedite and polyhalite): formation and paleoenvironmental implications. Carbonates and Evaporites, 35, 126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-020-00660-y
Liu, C., Ma, L., Jiao, P., Sun, X., & Chen, Y. (2010). Chemical sedimentary sequence of Lop Nur salt lake in Xinjiang and its controlling factors. Mineral. Deposits, 29(4), 625–630.
Lowenstein, T. K., Li, J., & Brown, C. B. (1998). Paleotemperatures from fluid inclusions in halite: method verification and a 100,000 year paleotemperature record, Death Valley, CA. Chemical Geology, 150(3–4), 223–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(98)00061-8
Lowenstein, T. K., Timofeeff, M. N., Brennan, S. T., Hardie, L. A., & Demicco, R. V. (2001). Oscillations in Phanerozoic seawater chemistry: evidence from fluid inclusions. Science, 294(5544), 1086–1088. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1064280
McCaffrey, M. A., Lazar, B., & Holland, H. D. (1987). The evaporation path of seawater and the coprecipitation of Br− and K+ with halite. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 57(5), 928–937. https://doi.org/10.1306/212F8CAB-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D
Morachevskii, Iu. V., & Petrova, E. M. (1965). Metody analiza rassolov i solei. Moskva; Leningrad: Khimiia. [in Russian]
Palmer, M. R., Helvací, C., & Fallick, A. E. (2004). Sulphur, sulphate oxygen and strontium isotope composition of Cenozoic Turkish evaporites. Chemical Geology, 209(3–4), 341–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2004.06.027
Pavlyshyn, V. I., Diakiv, V. O., Tsar, Kh. M., & Kytsmur, I. I. (2012). Ontohenichni zakonomirnosti krystalizatsii mirabilit-tenardytovykh ahrehativ z ropy kaliinykh rodovyshch Peredkarpattia. Mineralohichnyi zhurnal, 2(34), 17–25. [in Ukrainian]
Petrichenko, O. I. (1988). Fiziko-khimicheskie usloviia osadkoobrazovaniia v drevnikh solerodnykh basseinakh. Kiev: Naukova dumka. [in Russian]
Petrychenko, O. Y. (1973). Metody doslidzhennia vkliuchen u mineralakh halohennykh porid. Kyiv: Naukova dumka. [in Ukrainian]
Şafak, Ü., Kelling, G., Gökçen, N. S., & Gürbüz, K. (2005). The mid-Cenozoic succession and evolution of the Mut basin, southern Turkey, and its regional significance. Sedimentary Geology, 173(1–4), 121–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2004.03.012
Timofeeff, M. N., Lowenstein, T. K., Martins da Silva, M. A., & Harris, N. B. (2006). Secular variation in the major-ion chemistry of seawater: Evidence from fluid inclusions in Cretaceous halites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 70(8), 1977–1994. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.01.020
Vakhrameeva, V. A. (1956). K mineralogii i petrografii solianykh otlozhenii zaliva Karabogaz-Gol. Trudy VNIIG, 32, 67–86. [in Russian]
Valiashko, M. G. (1962). Zakonomernosti formirovaniia mestorozhdenii solei. Moskva: Moskovskii universitet. [in Russian]
Valiashko, M. G., & Pelsh, G. K. (1952). Metamorfizatciia nasyshchennykh sulfatnykh rastvorov bikarbonatom kaltciia. Trudy VNIIG, 23, 177–200. [in Russian]
Wang, M., Yang, Z., Liu, C., Xie, Z., Jiao, P., & Li, C. (1997). Potash deposits and their exploitation prospects of saline lakes of the north Qaidam Basin. Beijing: Geological Publishing House. [in Chinese]
Wei, X., Shao, C., Wang, M., Zhao, D., Cai, K., Jiang, J., He, G. & Hu, W. (1993). Material constituents, depositional features and formation conditions of potassium-rich Salt Lakes in western Qaidam Basin. Beijing: Geological Publishing House.
Xu, Y., Cao, Y., & Liu, C. (2021). Whether the Middle Eocene salt-forming brine in the Kuqa Basin reached the potash-forming stage: Quantitative evidence from halite fluid inclusions. Geofluids, 5574772. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5574772
Zhang, X., Fan, Q., Li, Q., Du, Y., Qin, Z., Wei, H., & Shan, F. (2019). The source, distribution, and sedimentary pattern of K-rich brines in the Qaidam Basin, Western China. Minerals, 9(11), 655. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9110655
Zhang, Y., & Xuan, Z. (1996). Economic evaluation of potassium and magnesium solid deposit in Kunteyi and Mahai Salt Lake of Qinghai Province. Journal of Salt Lake Science, 4(1), 36–45. [in Chinese]
Zhou, J., Gong, D., & Li, M. (2015). The characteristic of evaporite, migration of salt basins and its tectonic control in Triassic Sichuan Basin. Acta Geologica Sinica, 11, 1945–1952.
Zimmermann, H. (2000). Tertiary seawater chemistry – implications from primary fluid inclusions in marine halite. American Journal of Science, 300(10), 723–767. https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.300.10.723
Zinchuk, I. M. (2003). Heokhimiia mineraloutvoriuiuchykh rozchyniv zoloto-polimetalevykh rudoproiaviv Tsentralnoho Donbasu (za vkliuchenniamy u mineralakh) [Extended abstract of Candidateʼs thesis, Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Combustible Minerals of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine]. Lviv. [in Ukrainian]
Received: January 21, 2026
Accepted: February 23, 2026
Published: April 21, 2026